Global poverty and education

In recent years, the transnational agencies launched a number of initiatives aimed at reducing worldwide poverty and improving international security. Criticizing the modernism and development theories which were used previously, the scholars made attempts to explain the major causes underlying the failure of the development efforts of the previous half a century.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Global poverty and education specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Refocusing on education development as the dominant discourse helpful for achieving the rest of the development goals is one of the most decisions made by the transnational agencies recently. This paper will discuss the criticisms of the development theories, the historical context of development efforts, the role of international and non-governmental organizations in multilateral education and solutions offered by contemporary scholars to enhance the effective ness of the launched programs. Current sociocultural perversion marginalizing the poor In modern world, all governments make efforts to not only protect their citizens but also to ensure their access to the basic services, including those of safe drinking water, health care delivery and education. Regardless of the fact that a wide range of domestic state institutions, international agencies and non-governmental organizations launch projects to benefit the poor, the poor perceive formal services as inaccessible and ineffective. The politics of representation of the Third World has had a significant impact upon the development discourse and formation of culture and subjectivities in developing countries. Escobar (1995, p. 215) noted that the very existence and status of the Third World is currently negotiated. The term of the Third World was created as an opposite of the First World denoting the countries which consider them as developed. The term has a negative connotation and remai ns an important construct used by those in power. Notwithstanding the chosen definition of modernity, the Third World should not be perceived as a uniform entity, but rather as a fragmented and polarized combination of diverse regions.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Since the 1980s, resistance to development expressed by the grassroots movements was one of the strategies through which the Third World made attempts to construct their unique identities. This struggle against the intervention of international organization aimed at modernization and globalization into the domestic affairs of the Third World was fundamentally cultural (Escobar, 1995, p. 216). Another approach used for negotiating the development of the Third World was a concept of hybridization of local cultures and modernity to receive a new entity. However, this biological interpretation cannot be applied to discu ssion of hybrid cultures as a combination of long-standing cultural practices and an incoming element of modernity integrated into the local cultures by transnational forces. With the advent of cyberculture and the global economic restructuring, the technologic gap between rich and poor countries has been dramatically increased. Consequently, rejecting to use some of the innovative technologies, countries of the Third World undergo the risks of becoming irrelevant to the world economy. Even though certain regions are involved into the processes of global economic integration, they remain marginalized from it benefits. As a consequence of the current state of affairs, this phenomenon is referred to as sociocultural perversion. The solution offered by Escobar (1995, p. 222) is a social reform for the Third World regions to reach the goals of technological modernization and competitive participation in the world economy with a special emphasis put upon the educational policies in these countries. Historical context and trends in multilateralism and education The development theories have a significant impact upon the strategies implemented by transnational agencies and non-governmental organizations in relation to education policies for the developing countries. The combination of state-centric, transnationalist and structuralist theories clearly demonstrates the variety of theoretical approaches to be considered to understand multilateral cooperation and the controversy over the objectives, processes and outcomes of education.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Global poverty and education specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The policy setting in UN education is a rather controversial and complicated process. According to Jones (2005, p. 23), the UN education process lacks harmony and consistency because of the multitude and diversity of educational issues around the world. Historically, education concerns were included into the UN charter during a conference in San-Francisco in April – June 1945. The lobbyist delegations from developing countries and the US-based groups were pressing for the education case, which was expected to contribute to international peace and security. Whereas the process of integrating the education concerns into the UN charter was rather smooth, the question of whether to establish a specialized agency focusing on education remained doubtful. In the year 1948, education was included into the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as a part of the UN program aimed at promoting peace and interdependence between the states on the global level. The entry of education as a multilateral concern into the programming of transnational agencies resulted in economic justification of education and consideration of the correlation between poverty of specific regions and the quality and accessibility of education programs there. Political multilateralism a nd economic multilateralism are the two major lines of thinking which had a significant impact upon the UN education programming. The goals of the global economic integration and governance were central to the multilateralism pathways chosen by the UN for promoting peace and security in the world. The links between material progress, security and modernization strategies have become explicit. Jones (2005, p. 31) stated that the circumstances on the international arena were favorable for this way of thinking. Since the mid-1980s, neo-liberalism theories influenced educational theories and became significant concerns in educational policies and practices. Discussing the issues of the complexity and diversity of educational system, Jones (2005, p. 42) used the term of structured anarchy to emphasize the collaboration and competition among the variety of the UN education agencies.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The main principles which were prevalent in the organization of the UN education since the year 1945 when education concerns were included into the UN chart included globalization, security and multilateralism. The complex interplay of these principles was responsible for the education for all movement. The international organizations in construction of multilateral education Within the recent decades, the multilateral agencies, including those of the World Bank, UNICEF, UNESCO and UNDP, have been playing an important role in structuring the world education agenda. These agencies played a dominant role in formulating the International Development Targets (IDTs) and following Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which became the basis for the education policymaking. According to Rutkowski (2007, p. 244), the main reason for which the international organizations had impact upon the education agenda on local, national and global levels was softness of the implemented strategies. At the World Conference on Education for All which took place in 1990 in Jomtien (Thailand) invited 155 national delegations from different countries a framework on providing access to primary education for citizens of all countries was shaped. According to King (2007, p. 379), the themes raised during that World Conference focused mainly on basic education associated with primary schooling. Moreover, regardless of the precise goals and time-bound target, the Jomtien Declaration and Framework were not prescriptive and were not shared by all countries. Ten years later after the World Conference in Jomtien, in the year 200, the World Forum on Education for All was held in Dakar. By this moment, it became clear that the target of achieving the universal primary education as it was outlined by Jomtien Framework within ten years was unrealistic. Six Dakar Targets were formulated at this Forum for expanding and improving access to primary education for children belonging to the most vulnerable and disadvantaged categories and ensuring gender equality in education. Just a few months after Dakar Forum, eight Millennium Development Goals were formulated at the global summit in New York. According to King (2005, p. 386), the peculiar feature of the Millennium Declaration was formulation of strict timelines for the targets related to the south and the absence of any time limitations in resolutions related to the north. The Millennium Declaration did not pay proper attention to the financial basis necessary for the realization of the offered targets. With its financing impact and the political force, the World Bank can be regarded as one of the strongest players in the sphere of multilateral education. Regardless of the fact that the World Bank as a UN specialized agency is better understood as a financial institution dedicated to borrowing and lending money, its political influence on the development strategies is obvious. Regardless of the fact that education is only a minor concern of the World Bank and the annual reimbursements dedicated to this area do not exceed 10 percent of the overall expenses, it addresses a wide range of education issues and is prominent in multilateral education. A significant contribution made by the World Bank to the global education agenda was the resurrection of interest in higher education which can be seen from the joint initiative of the bank and UNESCO, referred to as the task force on higher education and society (TFHES) (Jones, 2005, p. 135). Notwithstanding the significance of the World Bank and other international agencies, these were only a few players affecting the multilateral education agenda. The role of non-governmental organizations in realization of development projects The Western definition of modernity, according to which certain societies are recognized as more modern and developed than others and obtaining resources and knowledge to assist other less developed nations in achieving modernity, has critic ized as Western universalism. Elu and Banya (1999, p. 183) stated that this definition was used by the north or the so-called First World for inclusion of the southern societies into the north-dominated world. In the context of post-modern critiques, the diversity and complexity of the global development activities has increased resulting in proliferation of external and internal non-governmental organizations. As it has been mentioned earlier, regardless of all the efforts to reach the most disadvantaged groups of population, the formal services are still perceived as inaccessible by the poor (Narayan, 2000, p. 120). It is one of the reasons for which a growing number of aid agencies were turned into non-governmental organizations which can be more useful for launching the development projects and leading the resources to the poor. The other reasons for these changes are the growing interest among agencies in strengthening the developmental roles of institutions outside the public sector and the demonstrated potential of non-governmental organizations to reach the poor more effectively than the public agencies do. Therefore, the popularity of the non-governmental organizations as cost-effective alternatives to public development resources has grown. Elu and Banya (1999, p. 187) stated that Northern non-governmental organizations were frequently used for transferring the cultural awareness, values and patterns from the countries providing technical and financial assistance to the developing countries as recipients of this aid. Applying this perspective to the estimation of the role of non-governmental organizations, it can be stated that these establishments are frequently perceived as products of governments using them as temporary mediators for achieving specific political goals and expanding their influence. However, as it can be seen from the example of African voluntary development organizations, southern countries do not remain passive recipients of the aid provided by northern states but create their local non-governmental organizations as a response to the African needs. Then, the question of theoretical and practical relationships between external donors and the locally-based organizations is posed. According to Elu and Banya (1999, p. 190) a partnership between the northern and southern non-governmental organizations would be the most appropriate approach to enhancing the effectiveness of initiatives launched by both parties. Regardless of the obvious benefits of potential collaboration, the partnership between the rich north and impoverished locally-based organizations is associated with a number of dilemmas. Because of the inequality of resources, expectations and motivations of the actors, the effective partnership between the north and south non-governmental organizations is not achieved even though in theory the organizations agree that mutual relationship would be advantageous for them. Effective solutions for the educati on agenda The ineffectiveness of the initiatives launched by multilateral organizations can be explained with the lack of attention paid to the specifics of the education sectors in developing countries. A detailed education sector analysis can be an effective tool for empowering reform and development through the vast majority of studies did not address the issues of the sector structure in the context of the aid relationship. The need to simultaneously address multiple high priority goals, including those of improved healthcare and education appeared to be an unresolvable tension for Africa and other developing countries. Insufficient analysis of the specifics of situation in different countries significantly reduces the effectiveness of the programs and initiatives. According to Samoff (1999, p. 270), the main conclusion made by studies addressing the problems of education in postcolonial Africa is that the educational system is in crisis without specification of the underlying p rocesses and the most influential factors affecting it. The limited national control over the education sector analysis and insufficient sense of national ownership reduce the credibility and opportunities for the practical application of existing studies. The implementation of development strategies in specific locations can have a number of unexpected and even paradoxical consequences. For example, according to Pigg (1997, p. 259), the development implementation in Nepal was rather complex and had a number of local quirks. Thus, the highly trained Nepalese health care practitioners were unwilling to work in the countryside, whereas by providing training to the village practitioners, the development strategy increased their ambitions and enabled them to move to the urban areas. These unexpected consequences were not predicted before the launch of the initiative and prove the importance of conducting a thorough research of the local setting before the development implementation. Sim ilar concerns were raised by Demerath (2003, p. 137) who pointed out at the shifts in the social attachments and ideologies of individuals after their enrollment into the training programs which are a part of development initiatives. In other words, a careful sector analysis can be an effective tool for enhancing the effectiveness of the education agendas and other development programs. Analyzing the main reasons for the failure of the global development efforts over the decades, it can be stated that the enhanced partnership between a wide array of aid organizations and a more serious consideration of the peculiar features of certain settings is important for eliminating the deficits in the programs and enhancing the effectiveness of initiatives. Coxon and Munce (2008, p. 148) stated that external aid donating organizations can threaten the local ideas of what education programs should be. For this reason, indicating global patterns of power and influence, policymakers should consi der the specifics of local cultures and pay more attention to the opportunities of enhanced partnership among the different aid donating organizations. Conclusion Analyzing the criticisms of the main development theories and initiatives, it can be stated that the lack of attention to the specifics of the situation in developing countries and lack of partnership between different agencies are among the main underlying causes of the failure of the development efforts of the previous decades. Therefore, the emphasis on education-development relationship, education sector analysis and enhanced partnership between different agencies are essential for improving access to education, reducing the world poverty and enhancing international security. References Coxon, E. and Munce, K. (2008) The global education agenda and the delivery of aid to Pacific education. Comparative Education, 44(2), pp. 147 – 165. Demerath, P. (2003) Negotiating individualist and collectivist futures: Emergin g subjectivities and social forms in Papua New Guinea high schools. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 34 (2), pp. 136 – 157. Elu, J. and Banya K. (1999) Non-governmental organizations as partners in Africa: A cultural analysis of North-South relations. In K. King and L. Buchert (eds) Changing international aid to education: Global patterns and national contexts. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, pp. 182 – 206. Escobar, A. (1995) Conclusion: Imagining a postdevelopment era. In A. Excobar Encountering development. The making and unmaking of the third world. Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 212 – 247. Jones, P.W. (2005) Education, multilateralism and the UN. In P.W. Jones The United Nations and education. Multilateralism, development and globalization. London and New York: Routledge Falmer, pp. 94 – 136. King, K. (2007) Multilateral agencies in the construction of the global agenda on education. Comparative Education, 43 (3), pp. 377 – 391. Nara yan, D. (2000) Can anyone hear us? Voices of the poor. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 3-126. Pigg, S.L. (1997) Found in most traditional societies: Traditional medical practitioners between culture and development. In F. Cooper and R. Packard (eds) International development and the social sciences. Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 259 – 290. Rutkowski, D. (2007) Converging us softly: How intergovernmental organizations promote neoliberal educational policy. Critical Studies in Education, 48 (2), pp. 229 – 247. Samoff, J. (1999) Education sector analysis in Africa: Limited national control and even less national ownership. International Journal of Educational Development, 19, pp. 249 – 272. This essay on Global poverty and education was written and submitted by user Brooke C. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

55 Synonyms for Courage

55 Synonyms for Courage 55 Synonyms for â€Å"Courage† 55 Synonyms for â€Å"Courage† By Mark Nichol Courage comes in many varieties, often identified by distinct synonyms. Some terms refer to determination more than bravery, but the two qualities are intertwined. Here’s a roster of the valiant vocabulary: 1-2. Adventuresomeness: Like many words on this list, this one is encumbered by the suffix -ness, but it and its nearly identical-looking and somewhat less clumsy synonym adventurousness convey a connotation of a flair for undertaking risky or dangerous enterprises. 3. Audacity: This term’s meaning as a synonym for courage is tainted by another sense, that of shamelessness. 4. Backbone: This word, one of several on this list that figuratively refer to body parts, implies that a courageous person is unyielding or indestructible. 5. Balls: This vulgar slang for testicles suggests that a person said, in a figurative sense, to possess them is endowed with an anatomical feature equated with virility and thus with courage. 6. Boldness: This word means â€Å"daring, fearless† but can also mean â€Å"adventurous† as well as â€Å"presumptuous.† 7. Bottle: This British English slang term derives from the word for a container for liquid; whether it alludes to the receptacle’s sturdiness or to the false courage inspired by imbibing alcohol from it is unclear. 8. Bravery: This word, like courage itself, is an all-purpose term, though it also can mean â€Å"finery† or â€Å"ostentatious display,† perhaps from the idea of a triumphant hero’s trappings. Brave, too, has an alternate meaning of â€Å"excellent,† and as a noun used to refer to an American Indian warrior. 9. Chivalry: This term, from the French word chevaler (whence chevalier as a synonym for knight; the Latin ancestor is caballarius, â€Å"horseman†), originally referred to the courage of a knight but later came to encompass other ideal but often unrealized qualities such as courtesy and devoutness. 10. Cojones: This frequently misspelled slang word, from the Spanish word meaning â€Å"testicles,† is often used as a (slightly) less offensive alternative to its counterpart in English slang. 11. Courageousness: This is an oddly superfluous term, considering that courage is more compact and means exactly the same thing, but courageous is a useful adjective. 12-13. Daring: This word has a connotation of reckless disregard for personal safety. Daringness is an unnecessarily extended (and therefore unnecessary) variant. 14. Dash: This term suggests ostentatious courage but can also imply the pretense of that quality, and might be confused with other senses of the word. Dashing, however, is a vivid adjective. 15. Dauntlessness: Among the words here saddled with a suffix, dauntlessness is nevertheless an expressive term. Its root, daunt, means â€Å"to tame or subdue.† 16. Determination: This word connotes resolve more than courage but is a useful associate for synonyms of the latter term. 17. Doughtiness: This word itself is somewhat clumsy, but the root word, doughty, is one of the most evocative synonyms for brave. 18. Elan: This borrowing from French, best (at least in print) with an acute accent over the first letter, comes from a word meaning â€Å"rush† and implies vigor rather than courage but has a swashbuckling flair. 19. Enterprise: This is a synonym for initiative more than for courage but has a similar sense. 20. Fearlessness: This pedestrian word pales by comparison with some of its synonyms but might be useful in a pinch. 21-22. Fortitude: The original sense of this word was â€Å"strength,† but now it connotes the determination that enables courage to prevail over fear. The variant â€Å"intestinal fortitude† implies that one will not succumb to an abdominal ailment when confronted with adversity. 23. Gallantry: This word, like some others on the list, can easily suggest a pretense of courage rather than the quality itself. 24. Greatheartedness: This word also means â€Å"generosity,† so although it can imply both qualities in one person, when it is employed, the context should make the intended sense clear. 25. Grit: This term, memorably employed in the book and film title True Grit, connotes coarse but uncompromising courage. 26-27. Guts: This slang term for the abdominal organs, traditionally thought of as the seat of emotions, applies to a combination of courage and indefatigability. A more verbose variant is gutsiness. 28. Hardihood: This term, combining the adjective hardy (which can mean â€Å"brave† as well as â€Å"tough† and â€Å"audacious†) and the suffix -hood (â€Å"state of being†), implies combined courage and robustness. 29. Heart: This word’s use as a synonym for courage stems from the idea that the heart is the source of courage. The root of the latter word, indeed, comes from coeur, the French term for the heart (and ultimately from the Latin word cor). 30. Heroism: The root word, hero, has evolved to have a broad range of senses, and the word for the quality is similarly generic. 31-32. Intrepidity: This word and its close variant intrepidness are based on intrepid, meaning â€Å"fearless† (the root word is also the basis of trepidation). 33. Lionheartedness: This term is based on the association of the animal with courage; England’s King Richard I, a medieval model of chivalry, earned the epithet â€Å"the Lionhearted.† 34. Mettle: This word, adapted from metal, means â€Å"stamina† but is also employed to refer to courage. 35. Moxie: This word, taken from the brand name for a carbonated beverage that, like its better-known and longer-lived competitors Pepsi and Coca-Cola, was originally touted as a source of pep, initially meant â€Å"energy† but came to be associated with expertise as well as courage. 36. Nerve: Because of this word’s additional sense of presumptuousness, the connotation of courage might not be clear; both meanings stem from the outdated idea that boldness is conveyed through the body’s nerves. 37. Panache: This word derived from a Latin term for â€Å"small wing† implies flamboyance as much as courage, perhaps from the ostentatious display of feathers on knights’ helmets. 38. Pecker: This British English slang term doesn’t translate to American English so well; the association of the word as an irregular synonym for courage as well as with the male genitalia is discussed in the entry for balls. 39. Pluck: This word, converted to noun form from the verb, implies determined courage despite overwhelming odds or in the face of significant adversity. 40. Prowess: This word refers to remarkable skill as well as outstanding courage. 41-43. Resoluteness: This term, more gracefully rendered as resolution or even resolve, implies a purposefulness, rather than courage per se. 44. Spirit: This word carries the connotation of assertiveness or firmness as opposed to courage; it can also mean a display of energy or animation. 45. Spunk: This word, originally referring to materials suitable as tinder, is akin to mettle and pluck in meaning. 46. Stalwartness: The root word of this term, stalwart, is an alteration of stalworth, from an Old English word meaning â€Å"serviceable,† and refers more to strength and vigor than courage but is easily associated with the latter virtue. 47-48. Stoutheartedness: This word alludes to the idea that a large, vigorous heart imbues one with courage. A more concise variant is stoutness; someone who is of reliable courage is sometimes referred to as stout. 49. Temerity: This word implies a rash, contemptuous disregard for danger. 50-51. Tenacity: This term and its longer variant tenaciousness suggest persistence. 52. Valor: This word (and the related adjective valiant) implies a romantic ideal of courage. 53. Venturesomeness: The meaning of this word is virtually identical to its virtually identical synonym adventuresomeness (see above). 54. Verve: This term, which shares the same origin as verb, refers to a boldness of expression, whether verbal or artistic. 55. Virtue: In addition to senses of morality or another beneficial quality, this term has acquired status as a synonym for courage. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:What Is Irony? (With Examples)"Wracking" or "Racking" Your Brain?How to Send Tactful Emails from a Technical Support Desk

Managing a Diverse Workforce Around the World Research Paper

Managing a Diverse Workforce Around the World - Research Paper Example   This is because this phenomenon not only is capable of influencing the employers and employees working for an organization, but it also inflicts huge impact on the customers, suppliers, market reputation, and external stakeholders. They naturally drag along their cultures with themselves too and if leaders hesitate in making it their business to step in to look where one culture might crush the values of another culture either by mistake or with intention, big issues can develop and the ultimate consequences signify a major drop in the annual production rate. Therefore, developing the right kind of environment that is positive and healthy from the start is highly important in order to manage a culturally diverse workforce. It remains the job of the leaders to make the workforce understand that certain things which might be acceptable in one culture might appear to be truly inappropriate for workers coming from a different cultural background. Communication and teamwork if used to gether can combat the challenges raised by mismanaged workplace diversity. In the present global marketplace, conflicts originate often when the workers happen to be extremely self-involved and oblivious to the cultural circumstances around them due to which certain ideas might be presented by them that antagonize the cultural values of other workers. A culturally diverse workforce should not only be open to communication but it should be willing to collaborate. When the leaders invest wisely, the payoff might just turn out to be astounding. This is especially important as the payoffs literally affect every area of a business. In addition to better recruitment and employee retention as mentioned earlier, there is enhanced customer loyalty, stronger market position, innovative ideas, creativity, better attitudes, language skills, intuitive global understanding, and improved proposals to complex issues (Andrade, 2010). That is what results when the leaders decide to make a wise invest ment in developing a diverse workforce which is to be maintained later on by relying on teamwork and mutual collaboration as such a strategy helps in tacking the diversity challenges. It is increasingly important that the employers and managers inculcate this thing about how not being able to relate to cultural diversity can wreak havoc for an entire organization very earlier on their minds. This is because acknowledging an issue often serves as the first step to designing a solution. As discussed earlier whenever diversity is not respected at a workplace, one finds oneself entrapped between two opposing ideas as a result of which mental distortion speeds up and dissonance increases.  Ã‚  

Vornado Realty Trust Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Vornado Realty Trust - Essay Example operties aggregating to about 2.2 million square feet and 32.4% interest in Alexandra’s Inc., which possesses six properties, in the New York metropolitan area, including 731 Lexington Avenue and the 1.3 million square foot Bloomberg L.P headquarters building (Russell & Cohn 12). Retail properties owned by Vornado Realty Trust include 120 strip shopping centres, single-tenant retail assets and malls, which audits to about 20.8 million square feet mainly established in California, Puerto Rico and the northeast states (Russell & Cohn 12). Vornado, with about 70% interest, controls 555 retail shops, in California street, and a three building office, in San Francisco financial district known as bank of America centre, which aggregates to 1.8 million square feet (Russell & Cohn 13). Vornado realty trust has a 25% of its capital partners providing about 800 million dollars of the real estate fund. The stock information regarding rental changes and occupancy rates, in different regions, where properties of Vornado Realty Trust are located, were at $86.02 and dividend of about $2.92 (Russell & Cohn 34). Change was 1.2%, which yielded 3.39% in the latest result compared to the previous years. The company had an income of $856.153 million boosted, in 2011, by the increase in rental rates, in New York and Washington, in 2011. The Vornado Realty Trust owns high-rise commercial buildings, in the tune of hundred millions, in Washington DC and New York (Russell & Cohn 45). Over the past years, the company increased its revenue exponentially in the previous years was driven by increases in total square footage. The first quarter of the company’s sales, of 350-west mart centre, was a commendable rental and occupancy rate increase for almost $228million (Russell & Cohn 46). The second quarter rental changes, in Washington and New York, by the sales of Washington office brought the sales of $500 with a net gain of $177million to the company (Russell & Cohn 54). These rates, in

Harm Reduction And Zero Tolerance

Harm Reduction And Zero Tolerance In this essay the author will explore and critically evaluate harm reduction in drug rehabilitation versus zero tolerance approaches, with reference to public policy issues in drug use. Drawing on available literature on the policy context, and on literature and evidence from the rehabilitation domain, the author will develop a discursive analysis of how harm reduction can present a workable and potentially valuable intervention solution in developing concrete policies which might effectively address this rapidly increasing social need. Harm reduction is a process by which those involved in the rehabilitation process with illegal drug users attempt to reduce the risks of drug taking behaviour rather than trying to eradicate drug use altogether. In Australia, drug users have traditionally been addressed with a zero tolerance approach, in which the drug user is counselled towards complete abstinence from drug use (Wodak and Moore, 2002). Socio-politically this approach is both lauded and condemned and both for good reason. A reorientation away from legal and punitive, law enforcement approaches to controlling illegal drug trafficking and use and towards a health-oriented model of rehabilitation of drug users is now taking place (Wodak and Moore, 2002), mimicking international trends based on research evidence. Thus the policy context has been subject to pressure to engage in new approaches to drug rehabilitation (Wodak and Moore, 2002). Thus policy responses to the moral model of drug use have been viewed as insuffici ent, and the disease model of drug use has grown in popularity in socio-political and therapeutic arenas (Hamilton and Cape, 2002). Australia and New Zealand have both adopted this approach, which is both pragmatic and forward thinking (Hamilton and Cape, 2002). However, it could be argued that this approach represents societies and their governments affording license to an immoral trade which has a significant negative personal, social and medical, not to mention economic, impact on society. This approach accepts that drug use is a common feature of human experience à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦[and]à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ recognises that abstinence may be the ultimate goal, but accepts that this may not be achievable (or desirable) at least in the short-term (Hamilton and Cape, 2002, p 24). Thus social and political critics can view this as a tolerant attitude which fails to punish those who perpetrate the drug trade and cause significant suffering amongst those who abuse illegal and harmful drugs. All psychoactive drugs have the potential to cause some type of harm (Rumbold and Hamilton, 1998), and as such, represent a risk to the individual and society. However, drug use is viewed by many as normal social behaviour (Rumbold and Hamilton, 1998), and therefore policies which totally outlaw drug use can be viewed as inappropriate. Harm reduction strategies in Australia as enshrined in the National Drug Strategy (Rumbold and Hamilton, 1998), and as such present a more cohesive approach to managing the multiple facets of the problem or social phenomenon that is illicit drug use. Although law enforcement advocates argue that harm reduction strategies are not as effective as their own, economically, treatment and rehabilitation are actually much more cost effective in decreasing drug consumption (King, 1998). However, it is also possible to view legal, legislative and law enforcement approaches themselves as a form of harm reduction. Kutin (1998) shows how leglisative and law enforcement approaches have reduced violence associated with alcohol use. Harm reduction approaches, therefore, need not be viewed as diametrically opposed to the law enforcement approach, and this would argue that current policy orientations which encompass both approaches are actually the ideal way in which to approach the ongoing social an d public health drivers requiring an effective response from the policy level right down to the therapeutic level. According to Hellawell (1995 in Kutin, 1998, p 181): More realistic goals include attempting to reduce the frequency of sue, the quantity and toxicity of drugs consumed and to reduce harm to drug users and the community generally. Harm reduction must be embraced. Police strategies must encompass all these elements. There is ample evidence that harm reduction strategies are beneficial to indvidual clients, and represent the opportunity for significant public health improvement (Ritter and Cameron, 2006). However, McKeganey (2006) shows that in relation to the growth of the prevalence of drug abuse, and the increase in occurrence of drug related harms, including drug related crime, it is now the time to make drug prevention, rather than harm reduction, the focus of policy and practice. Futterman et al (2005) suggest a therapeutic approach which combines effective therapies with harm reduction strategies, working on behaviours with an overall end point of reducing drug use. But the ongoing arguments both for and against harm reduction policies are subject to forces which relate to key features of harm reduction, including: the primary goal being reducing harm rather than reducing drug use; the acceptance that drugs are a part of social life and cannot be eradicated from this; harm reduction is a c omprehensive public health framework; the priority is achievable and immediate goals; and that harm reduction is based upon values of pragmatism and humanism (Ritter and Cameron, 2006). This means that while reducing harm may be an improvement for the individual, and may be more realistic and achievable, there will always be groups and individuals who do not believe that this is a sufficiently aggressive approach, and while harm reduction produces individual benefits (Riley and OHare, 2000; Christie and Anderson, 2003), it does not prevent drug use or remove the threat, risk and harm associated with this practice, and it does not punish those who are effectively breaking the law. Ultimately, many will always reject a humanistic approach which is so pragmatic as to tolerate law breaking and the potential causing of harm to others, as well as to the self (Christie et al, 2008). Yet the evidence remains clear that harm reduction strategies can impact on drug use rates, on risk-associated behaviour such as needle sharing, and on transmission of blood-borne diseases and engagement in rehabilitaton (Hunt, 2005; Stoltz et al, 2007; Strathdee et al, 1999). Therefore, public policies may be subject to an ethical imperative to address illegal drug use via every possible (and effective route), because the long term social costs of untreated drug dependency are of such significance (Wall et al, 2000). Therefore, it could be argued that the zero tolerance approach is, as already demonstrated, not sufficiently effective on its own, and that the harm reduction approach, as one element of a wider policy framework, is likely to bring benefits in the longer term.

Life in Plymouth Colony Essay

The book of John Demos on â€Å"A Little Commonwealth: Family Life in Plymouth Colony† explores on the concept of the family life in the context of the Plymouth Colony. In particular, it tends to describe the ways of life of the people in the Plymouth Colony specifically the aspect of family, which is the smallest unit of the society. Through this book review, one will be able to determine the true accounts of the social life and customs of the people in the Plymouth Colony. Basically, the book is dedicated into furthering the importance of the smallest and most intimates of all group environments- the family. This concept has been usually left out by experts and historians alike wherein their interest is focused on the larger units of social actions. This includes the region, the class, the party, the ethnic as well as the religious group. Most of the time, the unit of family is left with the behavioral science which includes the anthropology, sociology and psychology. In order to examine the behavior of the Plymouth Colony in a family setting, the author has to descend on the local level which is considered as almost personal history. As such, one has to know average people in the everyday routine of their lives, in order to begin to understand their behavior in a family setting. In this way, the author was able to successfully present a picture of the family in the Plymouth Colony rather than any single instance thereof. Different aspects of the family setting of the Plymouth Colony have been discussed in the book. The author started with providing a historical survey on the Plymouth Colony. Among the various aspects of family setting mentioned in the book are physical setting, the structure of the household and the themes of individual development. More specifically, the physically setting deals with the elements of housing, furnishing and clothing. On the structure of household, it consists of the husbands and wives, membership, parents and children and, masters and servants. Lastly, the themes of individual development involve the infancy and childhood, coming of age as well as late years. With the examination on the different aspects of the Plymouth Colony’s family setting, the author has come to realized that the family life in Plymouth was not at all unique. This is because of the evident similarities of the colony with other American colonies. More specifically, the similarity between the Plymouth Colony and other American colonies reside in the embrace of the term â€Å"Puritanism†. As such, it can be claimed that the family is, after all, an extremely fundamental and durable institution: it often provides a kind of common denominator, or baseline, for a whole culture whose various parts may differ substantially in other respects. Plymouth Colony has been known as the Old Colony and sometimes, the New Colony. It has been said that this colony is founded by the â€Å"Pilgrims† in 1620. In particular, the â€Å"Pligrims† are defined as the group of religious people which consists of adults as well as family groupings. They were English separatists from New England. They were famous on their sailing away from Europe to New America during the early 17th century in order to search for a home where they could freely practice their Puritan style of religion and live according to their own laws. Orginally, the â€Å"Pilgrims’ are English Puritans who broke away from the Church of England because they felt that it had not completed the work of the Reformation. Because of this, they committed themselves to a life based on the Bible. Most of the members of the â€Å"Pilgrims† are the poorly educated people, farmers and people without political and social standing. (â€Å"Chapter 2: The English Transplantations – People/Term†, 2007) Consequently, the arrival of the â€Å"Pilgrims† in the New World is illustrated by the following lines below: â€Å"Being thus arrived in a good harbor, and brought safe to land, they fell upon their knees and blessed the God of Heaven, who had brought them over the vast and furious ocean, and delivered them from all the perils and miseries thereof, again to set their feet on the firm and stable earth, their proper element. † (Demos, 1971) During their stay in North America, the â€Å"Pilgrims† manifested their views on Puritanism, especially on the way they deal with one another. Through these dealings, it is found out that the repression on the Puritans was not as strongly directed against sexuality as against the expression of hostile and aggressive impulses. Moreover, this evident on the prevalent modes of family life as well as child-rearing. More specifically, the book shows that even from the very start, the family of the Plymouth Colony was nuclear. This family characteristic has been unchanged even from the beginning of their settlement. Specifically, the family consists of one couple and their own children formed the core of each household — with the addition in some cases of an aged grandparent or â€Å"servant†. And during these times, the life in the households was much less segmented. However, despite this physical arrangement, the roles and responsibilities of the members of the family are almost the same as today. In this colony, there is a much tighter line of authority between the parent and the child. And the range of functions performed by the family includes material, psychological, social, and otherwise. Above all, the system of family life revolves around the fulfillment of certain basic needs as well as universal needs. These need comprise of the food, shelter and sexual release. Furthermore, the family in the Plymouth Colony setting is likened to different things and institutions. Particularly, the family is described as a â€Å"business†, â€Å"school†, â€Å"vocational institute†, the â€Å"church†, â€Å"house of correction† and as a â€Å"welfare institution†. As a business, the family is the central agency of economic production and exchange. As a school, the parents and the masters are obliged to attend to the educational needs of the children. As a vocational institute, there is a need to apply the knowledge and skills on the larger economic system. As a church, there is an obligation for â€Å"family worship†. Lastly, on the welfare institution, the family usually provides welfare services such as the presence of the hospital or even orphanage. Indeed, the findings on the book of John Demos create awareness on the true nature of the people from the Plymouth Colony. Moreover, it contributes to the strengthening on the American culture and history. In fact, it serves as one of the foundations of the family life of the American people. Undoubtedly, there is only little difference between the family of the Plymouth Colony and the modern-day American family. As such, the study of the ways and customs of the family on the Plymouth Colony proves the resemblance of families between the ancient colonies and the modern societies. Works Cited Demos, John. A Little Commonwealth: Family Life in Plymouth Colony. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971. Chapter 2: The English Transplantations – People/Term. 2 July 2007. .

Nacirema

The Nacirema change their behavior leading up to December 25th on their approved calendar. They believe that a spirit called â€Å"Christmas† will magically fill themselves and the people around then with joy and caring tendencies. They tell their offspring and little ones that a large man in a red suit with a white beard will break into their homes on the 25th and leave gifts if their behavior is good. If they are bad this man will leave black natural resources, coal.The children are also told to leave cookies for the man, although he is already extremely stout. The adults although supply the children with gifts and not coal, whether the child is good or bad by cultural norms. The women of the homes spend days prepping the home for others to come. They wipe down floors and use a large machine to attempt to remove debris from the soft areas of the floor, although the floor will just collect more dirt and debris over time.Some Nacirema even go knocking on the doors of other Nac irema and when they answer, they sing. The Nacirema dedicate literature, moving pictures, and several items to this spirit. Also, the Nacirema place large amounts of small balls of light and other items on or around their places of rest to honor the spirit. not really fake greed Nacirema is American spelled backwards and refers to, with a degree/pretense of anthropological self-distancing, aspects of the behavior and society of citizens of North America.Studying the Nacirema remains useful and productive for Americans even half a century after Miner first did so because it helps us realize how our behavior may be viewed by other cultures and what that impression will do for our relationship. Also, it helps us realize what parts of our behavior that we may have overlooked that are superficial, unnecessary, or flat out wrong.